AC Generators Design and Assembly

A typical AC generator consists of a stationary stator and a rotor mounted within the stator (see below: Typical AC Generator). The stator contains a specific number of coils, each with a specific number of windings. Similarly, the rotor consists of a specific number of field poles, each with a specific number of windings. In addition to the rotor and stator, a generator has a collector assembly (usually consisting of collector slip rings, brushes, and brush holders). DC flows from the exciter, through the negative brush and slip ring, to the rotor field poles. The return path to the exciter is through the positive brush and slip ring.

Rotor - The rotor contains magnetic fields which are established and fed by the exciter. When the rotor is rotated, AC is induced in the stator. The changing polarity of the rotor produces the alternating characteristics of the current. The generated voltage is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the number of coils (and number of windings of each coil), and the speed at which the rotor turns.

Stator - The frame assembly is the main component of the stator. Insulated windings (or coils) are placed in slots near an air gap in the stator core. There is a fixed relationship between the unit’s number of phases and the way the coils are connected. The stator in a four-wire, three-phase unit has three sets of armature coils which are spaced 120 electrical degrees apart. One end of each coil is connected to a common neutral terminal. The other end of each coil is connected to separate terminals. Conductors attached to the four terminals carry the current to the system’s switchgear and on to the load.

Collector slip rings - Slip rings are usually made of nonferrous metal (brass, bronze or copper); iron or steel is sometimes used. Slip rings usually do not require much servicing. The wearing of grooves or ridges in the slip rings is retarded by designing the machine with limited end-play and by staggering the brushes. Surfaces of the slip rings should be bright and smooth, polishing can be performed with fine sandpaper and honing stone. Electrolytic action can occur at slip ring surfaces producing formation of verdigris. Verdigris is a greenish coating that forms on nonferrous metals. Electrolytic deterioration can be prevented by reversing the polarity of the slip rings once or twice a year. The stator of the three-wire, three-phase unit also has three sets of armature coils spaced 120 electrical degrees apart. The ends of the coils are connected together in a delta configuration. Conductors are attached to the three connecting points.

References: “Joint Departments of the Army and the Navy, Operation Maintenance and Repair of Auxiliary Generators, 26 August 1996”

Working Procedure of an AC Generator

Operation of power generators is based on the Electromagnetic Induction. whenever a conductor moves relative to magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor. If a coil is spinning in a magnetic field, then the two sides of the coil move in opposite directions, and the voltages induced in each side add. The instantaneous value of the resulting voltage (called electromotive force, emf) is equal to the minus of the rate of change of magnetic flux Φ times the number of turns in the coil: V=−N•∆Φ/Δt. This relationship has been found experimentally and is referred to as Faraday's law. The minus sign here is due to Lenz law, which states that the direction of the emf is such that the magnetic field from the induced current opposes the change in the flux which produces this emf. Lenz law is connected to the conservation of energy.

.Since the rate of magnetic flux change through the coil that spins at a constant rate changes sinusoid ally with the rotation, the voltage generated at the coil terminals is also sinusoidal (AC). If an external circuit is connected to the coil's terminals, this voltage will create current through this circuit, resulting in energy being delivered to the load. Thus, the mechanical energy that rotates the coil is converted into electrical energy. Note that the load current in turn creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in the flux of the coil, so the coil opposes the motion. The higher current, the larger force must be applied to the armature to keep it from slowing down. In the animation the coil is rotated by the hand crank. In practice, the mechanical energy is produced by turbines or engines called prime movers.

The production of voltage depends only on the Relative Motion between the coil and the magnetic field. Voltage is induced by the same physics law whether the magnetic field moves past a stationary coil, or the coil moves through a stationary magnetic field. In the animation, the magnetic field is produced by a stationary magnet while the coil is revolving. In AC generators, usually the field is spinning and the power-producing armature is stationary. This armature comprises of a set of coils that form a cylinder. Also, in practice, the magnetic field is usually induced by an electromagnet rather then a permanent magnet.

The electromagnet consists of so called field coils mounted on an iron core. A current flow in the field coils produces the magnetic field. This current may be obtained from an external source or from the system's own armature. Regulation is achieved by sensing the output voltage, converting it to a DC, and comparing its level to a reference voltage. An error is used to control the field in order to maintain a constant output. Most modern AC sources with field coils are Self-Excited: the current for field coils is supplied by an additional exciting winding in the armature.

Wave Winding

In the lap winding, the two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. In the wave winding, the two ends of a coil are connected to the commutator segments that are approximately 360 electrical degrees apart (i.e., 2-pole pitch) and coil span = pole pitch. The result is that the coils under consecutive pole pairs will be joined together in series thereby adding together their e.m.f.s.This way all the coils carrying current in the same direction are connected in series. Therefore, there are only two parallel paths between the brushes, i.e., a=2 ,  independent of the number of poles. This type of winding is used for low-current, high-voltage applications.

Wave winding design procedure :

1. Both pitches YB and YF are odd and of the same sign.
2. Back and front pitches are nearly equal to the pole pitch and may be equal or differ by 2, in which case, they are respectively one more or one less than the average pitch.
3. Resultant pitch YR = YF + YB.
4. Commutator pitch, YC = YA (in lap winding YC = ±1 ). Also YC = (No.of commutator bars ± 1 ) / No.of pair of poles.
5. The average pitch which must be an integer is given by YA = (Z ± 2)/P = (No.of commutator bars ± 1)/No.of pair of poles.
6. The number of coils i.e NC can be found from the relation NC = (PYA ± 2)/2.
7. It is obvious from 5 that for a wave winding, the number of armature conductors with 2 either added or subtracted must be a multiple of the number of poles of the generator.This restriction eliminates many even numbers which are unsuitable for this winding.
8. The number of armature parallel paths = 2m where 'm' is the multiplicity of the winding.

Lap Winding

The windings are connected to provide several parallel paths for current in the armature. For this reason, lap-wound armatures used in dc generators require several pairs of poles and brushes.the finishing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole.

Following points are consider to design a lap winding 

1. The back and front pitches are odd and of opposite sign.But can't be equal. They differ by 2 or some multiple thereof.
2. Both YB and YF shpuld be nearly equal to the pole pitch.
3. The average pitch YA = (YB + YF)/2.It equals pole pitch = Z/P.
4. Commutator pitch YC = ±1.
5. Resultant pitch YR is even, being the arithmetical difference of two odd numbers i.e YR = YB - YF.
6. The number of slots for a 2-layer winding is equal to the number of coils.The number of commutator segments is also the same.
7. The number of parallel paths in the armature = mP where 'm' is the multiplicity of the winding and 'P' the number of poles.Taking the first condition, we have YB = YF ± 2m where m=1 fo simplex lap and m =2 for duplex winding etc.

• If YB > YF i.e YB = YF + 2, then we get a progressive or right-handed winding i.e a winding which progresses in the clockwise direction as seen from the comutator end.In this case YC = +1.
• If YB < size="1">F i.e YB = YF - 2,then we get a retrogressive or left-handed winding i.e one which advances in the anti-clockwise direction when seen from the commutator side.In this case YC = -1.

Armature and winding

The coiled, insulated conductors surrounding the armature through which current is run to create a magnetic field. Reversing the current flow through the armature.

There are two types of armature windings in DC machines.

1. LAP winding. 2. WAVE winding

The difference between the two is merely due to the different arrangement of the end connections at the front or commutator end of armature. Each winding can be   progressively or retrogressively and connected in simplex, duplex and so on. The following rules are followed by the armature windings manufacturer.

(i)The front and back pitch are each approximately equal to the pole-pitch i.e windings should be full-pitched. This results in increased e.m.f round the coils (ii)Both pitches should be odd, otherwise it would be difficult to place the coils properly on the armature. For example if YB and YF were both even, then all the coil sides and conductors would lie either in the upper half of slots or in the lower half. Hence, it would become impossible for one side of the coil to lie in the upper half of one slot and the other side of the same coil to lie in the lower half of some other slot.

(iii) The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of slots or coils because the front ends of conductors are joined to the segments in pairs.

(iv) The winding must close upon itself i.e if we start from a given point and move from one coil to another, then all connectors should be traversed and we should reach the same point again without a break or discontinuity in between.

Classification of Generators

The field windings provide the excitation necessary to set up the magnetic fields in the machine. There are various types of field windings . Depending upon the field there are two types of generators.

(a) Separately-excited generators

(b) Self-excited generators.

Self excited generators are classified according to there field connection. There are mainly three types of self excited generator.

I. Series

II. Shunt

III. Compound

Compound generators are classified as

a) cumulative-compound

b) Differential-compound

Series : In the series-connected generator, all of the current from the generator is passed through the field windings because the external circuit is in series.

Shunt : Another way to excite the field magnets is to connect them in parallel with the load . This type of generator is commonly called a shunt generator.

GENERATOR

The system consists of a cantilever beam supported by the housing. The mass on the beam is made up of two magnets (one pole) mounted on a c-shaped core. Arranging the magnets in this way provides a uniform magnetic field in the air-gap. The main purpose of the core is to provide a path and guide the magnetic flux through it with a minimum of flux leakage. The coil is made up of a number of single solid core enamelled copper wires. It is placed in the air-gap between the magnets at right angles to the direction of the movement of the mass.

The operating principle of the device is as follows. As the housing is vibrated, a mechanical input force feeds into a second order mechanical system, the mass moves relative to the housing and energy is stored in the mass-beam system. This relative displacement, which is sinusoidal in amplitude, causes the magnetic flux to cut the coil. This in turn induces a motional electromotive force on the coil due to Faraday’s law. The magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the coil position. The electrical system involved is simply a first-order LR circuit with the inductance of the coil in series with the load resistance and the parasitic resistance of the coil.

POWER GENERATOR (INTRODUCTION)

Over recent years, an interest has developed in micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) and the subject has matured to the point where its applications to a wide range of areas are now clearly feasible. Applications such as medical implants and embedded sensors in buildings and similar structures, are just a few of many examples. The supply of power to such systems has so far been through batteries. However, in long-lived systems where battery replacement is difficult and in applications consisting of completely embedded structures with no physical links to the outside world, generating power from ambient sources becomes imperative. Systems that depend on batteries have a limited operating life, while systems having their own self-powered supply unit have a potentially much longer life. A potential and promising alternative solution to batteries is the use of miniature renewable power supply units. Such devices convert energy from existing sources energy within their environment into electrical energy.

Ambient energy may be available within the environment of a system and is not stored explicitly. The source of such energies, however, depends on the application. The most familiar ambient energy source is solar power (light energy from ambient light such as sunlight). Thermal energy is another ambient energy source (thermoelectric generators generate electricity when placed across a temperature gradient) . Flow of liquids or gases, energy produced by the human body and the action of gravitational fields are other ambient energy source possibilities. Other examples which depend on injected energy rather than naturally occurring ambient energy fields include electromagnetic fields used in RF powered tags , inductively powered smart cards and non-invasive pacemaker battery recharging . Our approach uses mechanical vibration as the ambient energy source for generation of electrical power . Therefore, in this paper a vibration-based magnet-coil power generator is described.

The most important parameters influencing the design of such a system are its physical size and conversion efficiencies. The size is dependent on the energy requirement and must be as small as possible, to be compatible with the general design objectives of MEMS. However as the size of the device is reduced, mechanical resonances tend to increase in frequency and it is the challenge of generating power from comparatively low vibrational frequencies (hundreds of Hz rather than kHz) that is addressed in this work. The ambient energy may be at a premium in a particular environment so the conversion efficiency must be as high as possible. To analyse the transformation efficiency and to assess the input-output relationship of such a generator, full electromechanical and magnetic analyses have been carried out. Finite element (FE) techniques for the magnetic field distribution solution have been employed. Fabrication and test results of a first prototype based on simulation and modelling results are fully discussed. Practical amounts of power within reasonable space (quarter of a cubic centimetre) have been achieved.

Free Electrical ebooks

The book has been designed to include within a reasonable space most of the information that is useful in day-to-day electronics together with brief explanations which are intended to serve as reminders rather than full descriptions. In addition, topics that go well beyond the scope of simple practical electronics have been included so that the reader has access to information on the advanced technology that permeates so much of modern electronics.
Although the book is not intended as a form of beginners’ guide to the whole of electronics, the beginner will find much of interest in the early chapters as a compact reminder of electronic principles and circuits. The constructor of electronic circuits and the service engineer should both find the data in this book of considerable assistance, and the professional design engineer will also find that the items brought together here include many that will be frequently useful and which would normally be available in collected form in much larger volumes.

Download link : http://www.mediafire.com/?ynjizjjmzzk